Define $u:=\sigma \sqrt{\tau}$ and $v:=b+c e^{-d\tau}$, so $f(x)=a\Phi(u-x)-v\Phi(-x)$. For $f$ to have a root, clearly $a$ and $v$ must have identical signs. I assume this in the following.
Given this, $f(x)=0$ implies $\log{|a|}+\log{\Phi(u-x)}=\log{|v|}+\log{\Phi(-x)}$, so if we additionally define $w=\log{|v|}-\log{|a|}$, then any root of $g$ defined by $$g(x):=\log{\Phi(u-x)}-\log{\Phi(-x)}-w$$ is also a root of $f$.
Now, if $u>0$, then $\log{\Phi(u-x)}>\log{\Phi(-x)}$, so there can only be a root if $w>0$. If $u=0$, then $g(x)=-w$ and there can only be a root if $w=0$ (in which case all points are roots). Finally, if $u<0$, then $\log{\Phi(u-x)}<\log{\Phi(-x)}$, so there can only be a root if $w<0$. Henceforth then, I will also assume that $\operatorname{sign}u=\operatorname{sign}w$.
In line with your desire for solutions which are accurate when $|x|$ is large, the natural next step is to compute asymptotic expansions of $g(x)$ around $x\rightarrow+\infty$ and $x\rightarrow-\infty$. I confess I did these in Maple to save time. (The Maple code is included at the bottom.) These series expansions depend on whether $u>0$ or $u<0$.
The expressions are particularly simple around $\infty$. In particular, as $x\rightarrow \infty$:
$$g(x)=ux-\frac{u^2}{2}-w+O\left(\frac{1}{x}\right).$$
Thus, when the root $x$ of $f$ is large:
$$x\approx \frac{u^2+2w}{2u},$$
i.e. this approximation is valid for large $u$, large $w$ or large $-w$ with small $-u$.
Approximating around the $-\infty$ produces a slightly messy expression, but its inverse is simpler. In particular, when the root $x$ of $f$ is negative and large in magnitude, and either $u>0$ or $u<0$ and small in magnitude:
$$x\approx -\sqrt{\operatorname{LambertW}\left(\frac{1}{2w^2\pi}\right)}$$
Since the $\operatorname{LambertW}$ function (see Maple's definition here) tends to $\infty$ as its argument tends to $\pm\infty$, this approximation is valid for small $|w|$ and small $|u|$. ($|u|$ must also be small both because it was an additional assumption in deriving this expression in the $u<0$ case, and because for large $|u|$, the previous approximation is better.)
If $\operatorname{LambertW}$ is not sufficiently "closed-form", note that for small $|w|$, from the asymptotic approximation to the $\operatorname{LambertW}$ function given on Wikipedia here, we have that:
$$x\approx-\sqrt{-\log{(2w^2\pi)}-\log{(-\log{(2w^2\pi)})}-\frac{\log{(-\log{(2w^2\pi)})}}{\log{(2w^2\pi)}}}.$$
Maple code:
phi:=x->1/sqrt(2*Pi)*exp(-x^2/2):
Phi:=z->int(phi(x),x=-infinity..z):
g:=x->log(Phi(u-x))-log(Phi(-x))-w:
"u>0, x>>0";
g(x):
simplify(series(%,x=infinity,3)) assuming u>0 and w>0 and x>0;
convert(%, polynom):
simplify(solve(%,x)) assuming u>0 and w>0;
"u<0, x>>0";
g(x):
simplify(series(%,x=infinity,3)) assuming u<0 and w<0 and x>0;
convert(%, polynom):
simplify(solve(%,x)) assuming u<0 and w<0;
"u>0, x<<0";
g(x):
simplify(series(%,x=-infinity,3)) assuming u>0 and w>0 and x<0;
convert(%, polynom):
simplify(solve(%,x)) assuming u>0 and w>0;
"u<0, x<<0";
g(x):
simplify(series(%,x=-infinity,3)) assuming u<0 and w<0 and x<0;
eval(%,u=0);
convert(%, polynom):
simplify(solve(%,x)) assuming u<0 and w<0;
